In forests, in lawns, in city parks across the world lurks a small, pale, unassuming mushroom whose inconspicuous appearance belies its deadly nature. For within this mushroom dwelsl one of the deadliest poisons known to humans: amatoxin. It’s because of this toxin that the aptly-named ‘death cap mushroom’ (Amanita phalloides) is responsible for the vast majority of mushroom-related deaths around the globe each year. What makes this poisonous mushroom so very deadly, and is there anything we can do about it? In this episode, we take a journey through this legendary mushroom’s story, exploring its destructive biology, its murderous history, and its worrying yet hopeful future. Tune in to learn more about these mushrooms that show death can come in small packages.
| History | Biology |
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| Bever, Candace S., et al. “Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the detection of lethal amatoxins from mushrooms.” PloS one 15.4 (2020): e0231781. | Vetter, J., 2023. Amanitins: the most poisonous molecules of the fungal world. Molecules, 28(15), p.5932. |
| Bever, Candace S., et al. “Rapid, sensitive, and accurate point-of-care detection of lethal amatoxins in urine.” Toxins 12.2 (2020): 123. | Moor-Smith, M., Li, R. and Ahmad, O., 2019. The world’s most poisonous mushroom, Amanita phalloides, is growing in BC. British Columbia Medical Journal, 61(1). |
| Drott, Milton T., et al. “Pangenomics of the death cap mushroom Amanita phalloides, and of Agaricales, reveals dynamic evolution of toxin genes in an invasive range.” The ISME Journal 17.8 (2023): 1236-1246. | Zilker, T. and Faulstich, H., 2017. Cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms: The deadly Amanitas. Crit. Care Toxicol. Diagn. Manag. Crit. Poisoned Patient, pp.1-21. |
| Grimm-Samuel, Veronika. “On the mushroom that deified the Emperor Claudius.” The Classical Quarterly 41.1 (1991): 178-182. | Ye, Y. and Liu, Z., 2018. Management of Amanita phalloides poisoning: A literature review and update. Journal of critical care, 46, pp.17-22. |
| Litten, Walter. “The most poisonous mushrooms.” Scientific American 232.3 (1975): 90-101. | Smędra, A., Wochna, K., Zawadzki, D. and Berent, J., 2022. Medical error in treatment of Amanita phalloides poisoning in pre-hospital care. Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 30(1), p.20. |
| Luo, Hong, et al. “Genes and evolutionary fates of the amanitin biosynthesis pathway in poisonous mushrooms.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119.20 (2022): e2201113119. | White, J., Weinstein, S.A., De Haro, L., Bédry, R., Schaper, A., Rumack, B.H. and Zilker, T., 2019. Mushroom poisoning: A proposed new clinical classification. Toxicon, 157, pp.53-65. |
| Marmion, V. J., and T. E. J. Wiedemann. “The death of Claudius.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95.5 (2002): 260-261. | He, M.Q., Wang, M.Q., Chen, Z.H., Deng, W.Q., Li, T.H., Vizzini, A., Jeewon, R., Hyde, K.D. and Zhao, R.L., 2022. Potential benefits and harms: A review of poisonous mushrooms in the world. Fungal Biology Reviews, 42, pp.56-68. |
| Pringle, Anne, et al. “The ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita phalloides was introduced and is expanding its range on the west coast of North America.” Molecular Ecology 18.5 (2009): 817-833. | Mueller, G.M., Schmit, J.P., Leacock, P.R., Buyck, B., Cifuentes, J., Desjardin, D.E., Halling, R.E., Hjortstam, K., Iturriaga, T., Larsson, K.H. and Lodge, D.J., 2007. Global diversity and distribution of macrofungi. Biodiversity and conservation, 16, pp.37-48. |
| Valente, William A., et al. “Caveat cenans!.” The American journal of medicine 112.5 (2002): 392-398. | Diaz, J.H., 2005. Evolving global epidemiology, syndromic classification, general management, and prevention of unknown mushroom poisonings. Critical care medicine, 33(2), pp.419-426. |
| Walton, Jonathan, and Jonathan Walton. “Ecology and Evolution of the Amanita Cyclic Peptide Toxins.” The Cyclic Peptide Toxins of Amanita and Other Poisonous Mushrooms (2018): 167-204. | Vo, K.T., 2017. Amanita phalloides mushroom poisonings—Northern California, december 2016. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 66. |
| Wasson, R. Gordon. “The death of Claudius or mushrooms for murderers.” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 23.3 (1972): 101-128. | Kaae, J.A., Bever, C.S. and Poppenga, R.H., 2022. Early diagnosis of amanitin exposure (amatoxicosis) in a dog with a point‐of‐care diagnostic test. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 32(6), pp.824-829. |
| Goupil, R.C., Davis, M., Kaufman, A., Roberts, D. and Mitchell, T., 2021. Clinical recovery of 5 dogs from amatoxin mushroom poisoning using an adapted Santa Cruz protocol for people. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 31(3), pp.414-427. | |
| Wang, B., Wan, A.H., Xu, Y., Zhang, R.X., Zhao, B.C., Zhao, X.Y., Shi, Y.C., Zhang, X., Xue, Y., Luo, Y. and Deng, Y., 2023. Identification of indocyanine green as a STT3B inhibitor against mushroom α-amanitin cytotoxicity. Nature Communications, 14(1), p.2241. |
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